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Physiol. Rev. 81: 117-151, 2001;
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Physiological Reviews, Vol. 81, No. 1, January 2001, pp. 117-151
Copyright ©2001 by the American Physiological Society

Adaptation in Vertebrate Photoreceptors

Gordon L. Fain, Hugh R. Matthews, M. Carter Cornwall, and Yiannis Koutalos

Departments of Physiological Science and Ophthalmology, University of California, Los Angeles, California; Physiological Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Physiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; and Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado

Fain, Gordon L., Hugh R. Matthews, M. Carter Cornwall, and Yiannis Koutalos. Adaptation in Vertebrate Photoreceptors. Physiol. Rev. 81: 117-151, 2001.When light is absorbed within the outer segment of a vertebrate photoreceptor, the conformation of the photopigment rhodopsin is altered to produce an activated photoproduct called metarhodopsin II or Rh*. Rh* initiates a transduction cascade similar to that for metabotropic synaptic receptors and many hormones; the Rh* activates a heterotrimeric G protein, which in turn stimulates an effector enzyme, a cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. The phosphodiesterase then hydrolyzes cGMP, and the decrease in the concentration of free cGMP reduces the probability of opening of channels in the outer segment plasma membrane, producing the electrical response of the cell. Photoreceptor transduction can be modulated by changes in the mean light level. This process, called light adaptation (or background adaptation), maintains the working range of the transduction cascade within a physiologically useful region of light intensities. There is increasing evidence that the second messenger responsible for the modulation of the transduction cascade during background adaptation is primarily, if not exclusively, Ca2+, whose intracellular free concentration is decreased by illumination. The change in free Ca2+ is believed to have a variety of effects on the transduction mechanism, including modulation of the rate of the guanylyl cyclase and rhodopsin kinase, alteration of the gain of the transduction cascade, and regulation of the affinity of the outer segment channels for cGMP. The sensitivity of the photoreceptor is also reduced by previous exposure to light bright enough to bleach a substantial fraction of the photopigment in the outer segment. This form of desensitization, called bleaching adaptation (the recovery from which is known as dark adaptation), seems largely to be due to an activation of the transduction cascade by some form of bleached pigment. The bleached pigment appears to activate the G protein transducin directly, although with a gain less than Rh*. The resulting decrease in intracellular Ca2+ then modulates the transduction cascade, by a mechanism very similar to the one responsible for altering sensitivity during background adaptation.




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All-trans-retinal shuts down rod cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels: A novel role for photoreceptor retinoids in the response to bright light?
PNAS, June 11, 2002; 99(12): 8372 - 8377.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 IOVSHome page
J. C. Saari, M. Nawrot, G. G. Garwin, M. J. Kennedy, J. B. Hurley, N. B. Ghyselinck, and P. Chambon
Analysis of the Visual Cycle in Cellular Retinol-Binding Protein Type I (CRBPI) Knockout Mice
Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., June 1, 2002; 43(6): 1730 - 1735.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Physiol.Home page
J. J Kang Derwent, N. M Qtaishat, and D. R Pepperberg
Excitation and desensitization of mouse rod photoreceptors in vivo following bright adapting light
J. Physiol., May 15, 2002; 541(1): 201 - 218.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
J. W. Kijas, A. V. Cideciyan, T. S. Aleman, M. J. Pianta, S. E. Pearce-Kelling, B. J. Miller, S. G. Jacobson, G. D. Aguirre, and G. M. Acland
Naturally occurring rhodopsin mutation in the dog causes retinal dysfunction and degeneration mimicking human dominant retinitis pigmentosa
PNAS, April 30, 2002; 99(9): 6328 - 6333.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J. K. McBee, J. P. Van Hooser, G.-F. Jang, and K. Palczewski
Isomerization of 11-cis-Retinoids to All-trans-retinoids in Vitro and in Vivo
J. Biol. Chem., December 14, 2001; 276(51): 48483 - 48493.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Neurosci.Home page
E. R. Weiss, M. H. Ducceschi, T. J. Horner, A. Li, C. M. Craft, and S. Osawa
Species-Specific Differences in Expression of G-Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase (GRK) 7 and GRK1 in Mammalian Cone Photoreceptor Cells: Implications for Cone Cell Phototransduction
J. Neurosci., December 1, 2001; 21(23): 9175 - 9184.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
I. Sokal, N. Li, C. S. Klug, S. Filipek, W. L. Hubbell, W. Baehr, and K. Palczewski
Calcium-sensitive Regions of GCAP1 as Observed by Chemical Modifications, Fluorescence, and EPR Spectroscopies
J. Biol. Chem., November 9, 2001; 276(46): 43361 - 43373.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
S. Tachibanaki, S. Tsushima, and S. Kawamura
Low amplification and fast visual pigment phosphorylation as mechanisms characterizing cone photoresponses
PNAS, November 9, 2001; (2001) 241396898.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
R. Vogel and F. Siebert
Conformations of the Active and Inactive States of Opsin
J. Biol. Chem., October 12, 2001; 276(42): 38487 - 38493.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
A. Mendez, M. E. Burns, I. Sokal, A. M. Dizhoor, W. Baehr, K. Palczewski, D. A. Baylor, and J. Chen
Role of guanylate cyclase-activating proteins (GCAPs) in setting the flash sensitivity of rod photoreceptors
PNAS, August 1, 2001; (2001) 171308998.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Physiol.Home page
H. R Matthews and G. L Fain
A light-dependent increase in free Ca2+ concentration in the salamander rod outer segment
J. Physiol., April 15, 2001; 532(2): 305 - 321.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Exp. Biol.Home page
R. H. Kramer and E. Molokanova
Modulation of cyclic-nucleotide-gated channels and regulation of vertebrate phototransduction
J. Exp. Biol., January 9, 2001; 204(17): 2921 - 2931.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Biol. Chem.Home page
V. Ramamurthy, C. Tucker, S. E. Wilkie, V. Daggett, D. M. Hunt, and J. B. Hurley
Interactions within the Coiled-coil Domain of RetGC-1 Guanylyl Cyclase Are Optimized for Regulation Rather than for High Affinity
J. Biol. Chem., July 6, 2001; 276(28): 26218 - 26229.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
J. W. Kijas, A. V. Cideciyan, T. S. Aleman, M. J. Pianta, S. E. Pearce-Kelling, B. J. Miller, S. G. Jacobson, G. D. Aguirre, and G. M. Acland
Naturally occurring rhodopsin mutation in the dog causes retinal dysfunction and degeneration mimicking human dominant retinitis pigmentosa
PNAS, April 30, 2002; 99(9): 6328 - 6333.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
A. Mendez, M. E. Burns, I. Sokal, A. M. Dizhoor, W. Baehr, K. Palczewski, D. A. Baylor, and J. Chen
Role of guanylate cyclase-activating proteins (GCAPs) in setting the flash sensitivity of rod photoreceptors
PNAS, August 14, 2001; 98(17): 9948 - 9953.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
S. Tachibanaki, S. Tsushima, and S. Kawamura
Low amplification and fast visual pigment phosphorylation as mechanisms characterizing cone photoresponses
PNAS, November 20, 2001; 98(24): 14044 - 14049.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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