| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Physiological Reviews, Vol. 81, No. 1, January 2001, pp. 117-151
Copyright ©2001 by the American Physiological Society
Departments of Physiological Science and Ophthalmology, University of California, Los Angeles, California; Physiological Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Department of Physiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts; and Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver, Colorado
Fain, Gordon L.,
Hugh R. Matthews,
M. Carter Cornwall, and
Yiannis Koutalos.
Adaptation in Vertebrate Photoreceptors. Physiol. Rev. 81: 117-151, 2001.
When light is absorbed
within the outer segment of a vertebrate photoreceptor, the
conformation of the photopigment rhodopsin is altered to produce an
activated photoproduct called metarhodopsin II or Rh*.
Rh* initiates a transduction cascade similar to that for
metabotropic synaptic receptors and many hormones; the Rh*
activates a heterotrimeric G protein, which in turn stimulates an
effector enzyme, a cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase. The phosphodiesterase then hydrolyzes cGMP, and the decrease in the concentration of free cGMP reduces the probability of opening of
channels in the outer segment plasma membrane, producing the electrical
response of the cell. Photoreceptor transduction can be modulated by
changes in the mean light level. This process, called light adaptation
(or background adaptation), maintains the working range of the
transduction cascade within a physiologically useful region of light
intensities. There is increasing evidence that the second messenger
responsible for the modulation of the transduction cascade during
background adaptation is primarily, if not exclusively,
Ca2+, whose intracellular free concentration is decreased
by illumination. The change in free Ca2+ is believed to
have a variety of effects on the transduction mechanism, including
modulation of the rate of the guanylyl cyclase and rhodopsin kinase,
alteration of the gain of the transduction cascade, and regulation of
the affinity of the outer segment channels for cGMP. The sensitivity of
the photoreceptor is also reduced by previous exposure to light bright
enough to bleach a substantial fraction of the photopigment in the
outer segment. This form of desensitization, called bleaching
adaptation (the recovery from which is known as dark adaptation), seems
largely to be due to an activation of the transduction cascade by some
form of bleached pigment. The bleached pigment appears to activate the
G protein transducin directly, although with a gain less than
Rh*. The resulting decrease in intracellular
Ca2+ then modulates the transduction cascade, by a
mechanism very similar to the one responsible for altering sensitivity
during background adaptation.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  W. Xin, T. M. Tran, W. Richter, R. B. Clark, and T. C. Rich Roles of GRK and PDE4 Activities in the Regulation of {beta}2 Adrenergic Signaling J. Gen. Physiol., March 31, 2008; 131(4): 349 - 364. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. S. Lobanova, S. Finkelstein, R. Herrmann, Y.-M. Chen, C. Kessler, N. A. Michaud, L. H. Trieu, K. J. Strissel, M. E. Burns, and V. Y. Arshavsky Transducin {gamma}-Subunit Sets Expression Levels of {alpha}- and {beta}-Subunits and Is Crucial for Rod Viability J. Neurosci., March 26, 2008; 28(13): 3510 - 3520. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. L. Woodruff, K. M. Janisch, I. V. Peshenko, A. M. Dizhoor, S. H. Tsang, and G. L. Fain Modulation of Phosphodiesterase6 Turnoff during Background Illumination in Mouse Rod Photoreceptors J. Neurosci., February 27, 2008; 28(9): 2064 - 2074. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. S. Soo, P. B. Detwiler, and F. Rieke Light Adaptation in Salamander L-Cone Photoreceptors J. Neurosci., February 6, 2008; 28(6): 1331 - 1342. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. S. Mure, C. Rieux, S. Hattar, and H. M. Cooper Melanopsin-Dependent Nonvisual Responses: Evidence for Photopigment Bistability In Vivo J Biol Rhythms, October 1, 2007; 22(5): 411 - 424. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Drouyer, C. Rieux, R. A. Hut, and H. M. Cooper Responses of Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Neurons to Light and Dark Adaptation: Relative Contributions of Melanopsin and Rod Cone Inputs J. Neurosci., September 5, 2007; 27(36): 9623 - 9631. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. L. Woodruff, E. V. Olshevskaya, A. B. Savchenko, I. V. Peshenko, R. Barrett, R. A. Bush, P. A. Sieving, G. L. Fain, and A. M. Dizhoor Constitutive Excitation by Gly90Asp Rhodopsin Rescues Rods from Degeneration Caused by Elevated Production of cGMP in the Dark J. Neurosci., August 15, 2007; 27(33): 8805 - 8815. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Okawa and A. P. Sampath Optimization of Single-Photon Response Transmission at the Rod-to-Rod Bipolar Synapse Physiology, August 1, 2007; 22(4): 279 - 286. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 I. V. Peshenko and A. M. Dizhoor Activation and Inhibition of Photoreceptor Guanylyl Cyclase by Guanylyl Cyclase Activating Protein 1 (GCAP-1): THE FUNCTIONAL ROLE OF Mg2+/Ca2+ EXCHANGE IN EF-HAND DOMAINS J. Biol. Chem., July 27, 2007; 282(30): 21645 - 21652. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. C. Cornwall and P. Ala-Laurila A Perfect Marriage: Molecular Genetics Ties the Knot with Electrophysiology in Studies of Visual Transduction J. Gen. Physiol., July 1, 2007; 130(1): 7 - 10. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. Visser and J. Lytton K+-Dependent Na+/Ca2+ Exchangers: Key Contributors to Ca2+ Signaling Physiology, June 1, 2007; 22(3): 185 - 192. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. D. Stoimenova The Effect of Myopia on Contrast Thresholds Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., May 1, 2007; 48(5): 2371 - 2374. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Ichinose and P. D. Lukasiewicz Ambient Light Regulates Sodium Channel Activity to Dynamically Control Retinal Signaling J. Neurosci., April 25, 2007; 27(17): 4756 - 4764. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Rajala, R. E. Anderson, J.-X. Ma, J. Lem, M. R. Al-Ubaidi, and R. V. S. Rajala G-protein-coupled Receptor Rhodopsin Regulates the Phosphorylation of Retinal Insulin Receptor J. Biol. Chem., March 30, 2007; 282(13): 9865 - 9873. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y. SHIBUKAWA, K. J. KANG, T. G. KINJO, R. T. SZERENCSEI, H. F. ALTIMIMI, P. PRATIKHYA, R. J. WINKFEIN, and P. P. M. SCHNETKAMP Structure-Function Relationships of the NCKX2 Na+/Ca2+-K+ Exchanger Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., March 1, 2007; 1099(1): 16 - 28. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y. T. Leung, G. L. Fain, and H. R. Matthews Simultaneous measurement of current and calcium in the ultraviolet-sensitive cones of zebrafish J. Physiol., February 15, 2007; 579(1): 15 - 27. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Paillart, R. J. Winkfein, P. P.M. Schnetkamp, and J. I. Korenbrot Functional Characterization and Molecular Cloning of the K+-dependent Na+/Ca2+ Exchanger in Intact Retinal Cone Photoreceptors J. Gen. Physiol., January 1, 2007; 129(1): 1 - 16. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. R. Bright, E. D. Rich, and M. D. Varnum Regulation of Human Cone Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels by Endogenous Phospholipids and Exogenously Applied Phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate Mol. Pharmacol., January 1, 2007; 71(1): 176 - 183. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Maeda, T. Maeda, Y. Imanishi, W. Sun, B. Jastrzebska, D. A. Hatala, H. J. Winkens, K. P. Hofmann, J. J. Janssen, W. Baehr, et al. Retinol Dehydrogenase (RDH12) Protects Photoreceptors from Light-induced Degeneration in Mice J. Biol. Chem., December 8, 2006; 281(49): 37697 - 37704. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. E. Estevez, P. Ala-Laurila, R. K. Crouch, and M. C. Cornwall Turning Cones Off: the Role of the 9-Methyl Group of Retinal in Red Cones J. Gen. Physiol., December 1, 2006; 128(6): 671 - 685. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Q. He, D. Alexeev, M. E. Estevez, S. L. McCabe, P. D. Calvert, D. E. Ong, M. C. Cornwall, A. L. Zimmerman, and C. L. Makino Cyclic Nucleotide-gated Ion Channels in Rod Photoreceptors Are Protected from Retinoid Inhibition J. Gen. Physiol., October 1, 2006; 128(4): 473 - 485. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. Knopp and H. Ruppel Calcium-Sensitive Downregulation of the Transduction Chain in Rod Photoreceptors of the Rat Retina Biophys. J., August 1, 2006; 91(3): 1078 - 1089. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. A. Clark, D. Biron, P. Sengupta, and A. D. T. Samuel The AFD sensory neurons encode multiple functions underlying thermotactic behavior in Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Neurosci., July 12, 2006; 26(28): 7444 - 7451. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 N. Terada, N. Ohno, H. Ohguro, Z. Li, and S. Ohno Immunohistochemical Detection of Phosphorylated Rhodopsin in Light-exposed Retina of Living Mouse with In Vivo Cryotechnique J. Histochem. Cytochem., April 1, 2006; 54(4): 479 - 486. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. J. Strissel, M. Sokolov, L. H. Trieu, and V. Y. Arshavsky Arrestin Translocation Is Induced at a Critical Threshold of Visual Signaling and Is Superstoichiometric to Bleached Rhodopsin J. Neurosci., January 25, 2006; 26(4): 1146 - 1153. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Fan, M. L Woodruff, M. C Cilluffo, R. K Crouch, and G. L Fain Opsin activation of transduction in the rods of dark-reared Rpe65 knockout mice J. Physiol., October 1, 2005; 568(1): 83 - 95. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S Nymark, H Heikkinen, C Haldin, K Donner, and A Koskelainen Light responses and light adaptation in rat retinal rods at different temperatures J. Physiol., September 15, 2005; 567(3): 923 - 938. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. J. Strissel, P. V. Lishko, L. H. Trieu, M. J. Kennedy, J. B. Hurley, and V. Y. Arshavsky Recoverin Undergoes Light-dependent Intracellular Translocation in Rod Photoreceptors J. Biol. Chem., August 12, 2005; 280(32): 29250 - 29255. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. F. Duffy and K. P. Wright Jr. Entrainment of the Human Circadian System by Light J Biol Rhythms, August 1, 2005; 20(4): 326 - 338. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. L. P Jarvinen and T. D Lamb Inverted photocurrent responses from amphibian rod photoreceptors: role of membrane voltage in response recovery J. Physiol., July 15, 2005; 566(2): 455 - 466. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Maeda, T. Maeda, Y. Imanishi, V. Kuksa, A. Alekseev, J. D. Bronson, H. Zhang, L. Zhu, W. Sun, D. A. Saperstein, et al. Role of Photoreceptor-specific Retinol Dehydrogenase in the Retinoid Cycle in Vivo J. Biol. Chem., May 13, 2005; 280(19): 18822 - 18832. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Chen, E. Tsina, M. C. Cornwall, R. K. Crouch, S. Vijayaraghavan, and Y. Koutalos Reduction of All-trans Retinal to All-trans Retinol in the Outer Segments of Frog and Mouse Rod Photoreceptors Biophys. J., March 1, 2005; 88(3): 2278 - 2287. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. del Pilar Gomez and E. Nasi Calcium-Independent, cGMP-Mediated Light Adaptation in Invertebrate Ciliary Photoreceptors J. Neurosci., February 23, 2005; 25(8): 2042 - 2049. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. Y. Lee, C. D. Thulin, and B. M. Willardson Site-specific Phosphorylation of Phosducin in Intact Retina: DYNAMICS OF PHOSPHORYLATION AND EFFECTS ON G PROTEIN {beta}{gamma} DIMER BINDING J. Biol. Chem., December 24, 2004; 279(52): 54008 - 54017. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Solessio, S. S. Mani, N. Cuenca, G. A. Engbretson, R. B. Barlow, and B. E. Knox Developmental regulation of calcium-dependent feedback in Xenopus rods J. Gen. Physiol., October 25, 2004; 124(5): 569 - 585. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 X. Liu, O. V. Bulgakov, X.-H. Wen, M. L. Woodruff, B. Pawlyk, J. Yang, G. L. Fain, M. A. Sandberg, C. L. Makino, and T. Li From the Cover: AIPL1, the protein that is defective in Leber congenital amaurosis, is essential for the biosynthesis of retinal rod cGMP phosphodiesterase PNAS, September 21, 2004; 101(38): 13903 - 13908. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. V. Olshevskaya, P. D. Calvert, M. L. Woodruff, I. V. Peshenko, A. B. Savchenko, C. L. Makino, Y.-S. Ho, G. L. Fain, and A. M. Dizhoor The Y99C Mutation in Guanylyl Cyclase-Activating Protein 1 Increases Intracellular Ca2+ and Causes Photoreceptor Degeneration in Transgenic Mice J. Neurosci., July 7, 2004; 24(27): 6078 - 6085. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Nawy Desensitization of the mGluR6 transduction current in tiger salamander On bipolar cells J. Physiol., July 1, 2004; 558(1): 137 - 146. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. E. Niven, M. Vahasoyrinki, M. Juusola, and A. S. French Interactions Between Light-Induced Currents, Voltage-Gated Currents, and Input Signal Properties in Drosophila Photoreceptors J Neurophysiol, June 1, 2004; 91(6): 2696 - 2706. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. L. Makino, R.L. Dodd, J. Chen, M.E. Burns, A. Roca, M.I. Simon, and D.A. Baylor Recoverin Regulates Light-dependent Phosphodiesterase Activity in Retinal Rods J. Gen. Physiol., June 1, 2004; 123(6): 729 - 741. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Ala-Laurila, K. Donner, and A. Koskelainen Thermal Activation and Photoactivation of Visual Pigments Biophys. J., June 1, 2004; 86(6): 3653 - 3662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Sokolov, K. J. Strissel, I. B. Leskov, N. A. Michaud, V. I. Govardovskii, and V. Y. Arshavsky Phosducin Facilitates Light-driven Transducin Translocation in Rod Photoreceptors: EVIDENCE FROM THE PHOSDUCIN KNOCKOUT MOUSE J. Biol. Chem., April 30, 2004; 279(18): 19149 - 19156. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. L. McCabe, D. M. Pelosi, M. Tetreault, A. Miri, W. Nguitragool, P. Kovithvathanaphong, R. Mahajan, and A. L. Zimmerman All-trans-retinal Is a Closed-state Inhibitor of Rod Cyclic Nucleotide-gated Ion Channels J. Gen. Physiol., April 26, 2004; 123(5): 521 - 531. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A Deruaz, M Matter, A R Whatham, M Goldschmidt, F Duret, M Issenhuth, and A B Safran Can fixation instability improve text perception during eccentric fixation in patients with central scotomas? Br. J. Ophthalmol., April 1, 2004; 88(4): 461 - 463. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. I. Rebrik and J. I. Korenbrot In Intact Mammalian Photoreceptors, Ca2+-dependent Modulation of cGMP-gated Ion Channels Is Detectable in Cones but Not in Rods J. Gen. Physiol., December 29, 2003; 123(1): 63 - 76. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. R. Lavallee, J. R. Chalifoux, A. J. Moosally, and G. W. Balkema Elevated Free Calcium Levels in the Subretinal Space Elevate the Absolute Dark-Adapted Threshold in Hypopigmented Mice J Neurophysiol, December 1, 2003; 90(6): 3654 - 3662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. M. Krispel, C.-K. Chen, M. I. Simon, and M. E. Burns Novel Form of Adaptation in Mouse Retinal Rods Speeds Recovery of Phototransduction J. Gen. Physiol., November 24, 2003; 122(6): 703 - 712. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. G. Baryshnikov, O. A. Rogachevskaja, and S. S. Kolesnikov Calcium Signaling Mediated by P2Y Receptors in Mouse Taste Cells J Neurophysiol, November 1, 2003; 90(5): 3283 - 3294. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. Y. Arshavsky Protein Translocation in Photoreceptor Light Adaptation: A Common Theme in Vertebrate and Invertebrate Vision Sci. Signal., October 14, 2003; 2003(204): pe43 - pe43. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Yamazaki, H. Yu, M. Yamazaki, H. Honkawa, I. Matsuura, J. Usukura, and R. K. Yamazaki A Critical Role for ATP in the Stimulation of Retinal Guanylyl Cyclase by Guanylyl Cyclase-activating Proteins J. Biol. Chem., August 29, 2003; 278(35): 33150 - 33160. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
X. Zhu, B. Brown, A. Li, A. J. Mears, A. Swaroop, and C. M. Craft GRK1-Dependent Phosphorylation of S and M Opsins and Their Binding to Cone Arrestin during Cone Phototransduction in the Mouse Retina J. Neurosci., July 9, 2003; 23(14): 6152 - 6160. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Peng, E. D. Rich, C. A. Thor, and M. D. Varnum Functionally Important Calmodulin-binding Sites in Both NH2- and COOH-terminal Regions of the Cone Photoreceptor Cyclic Nucleotide-gated Channel CNGB3 Subunit J. Biol. Chem., June 27, 2003; 278(27): 24617 - 24623. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. C. Trudeau and W. N. Zagotta Calcium/Calmodulin Modulation of Olfactory and Rod Cyclic Nucleotide-gated Ion Channels J. Biol. Chem., May 23, 2003; 278(21): 18705 - 18708. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Mendez, J. Lem, M. Simon, and J. Chen Light-Dependent Translocation of Arrestin in the Absence of Rhodopsin Phosphorylation and Transducin Signaling J. Neurosci., April 15, 2003; 23(8): 3124 - 3129. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Y.-P. Ko, M. L. Ko, and S. E. Dryer Circadian Phase-Dependent Modulation of cGMP-Gated Channels of Cone Photoreceptors by Dopamine and D2 Agonist J. Neurosci., April 15, 2003; 23(8): 3145 - 3153. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. J. Kennedy, M. E. Sowa, T. G. Wensel, and J. B. Hurley Acceleration of Key Reactions as a Strategy to Elucidate the Rate-Limiting Chemistry Underlying Phototransduction Inactivation Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., March 1, 2003; 44(3): 1016 - 1022. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. E. Brockerhoff, F. Rieke, H. R. Matthews, M. R. Taylor, B. Kennedy, I. Ankoudinova, G. A. Niemi, C. L. Tucker, M. Xiao, M. C. Cilluffo, et al. Light Stimulates a Transducin-Independent Increase of Cytoplasmic Ca2+ and Suppression of Current in Cones from the Zebrafish Mutant nof J. Neurosci., January 15, 2003; 23(2): 470 - 480. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. I. Senin, T. Fischer, K. E. Komolov, D. V. Zinchenko, P. P. Philippov, and K.-W. Koch Ca2+-Myristoyl Switch in the Neuronal Calcium Sensor Recoverin Requires Different Functions of Ca2+-binding Sites J. Biol. Chem., December 20, 2002; 277(52): 50365 - 50372. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. M. Nolan, T. R. Sarafi-Reinach, J. G. Horne, A. M. Saffer, and P. Sengupta The DAF-7 TGF-beta signaling pathway regulates chemosensory receptor gene expression in C. elegans Genes & Dev., December 1, 2002; 16(23): 3061 - 3073. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. V. S. Rajala, M. E. McClellan, J. D. Ash, and R. E. Anderson In Vivo Regulation of Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase in Retina through Light-induced Tyrosine Phosphorylation of the Insulin Receptor beta -Subunit J. Biol. Chem., November 1, 2002; 277(45): 43319 - 43326. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
