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Physiol. Rev. 78: 1193-1231, 1998;
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PHYSIOLOGICAL REVIEWS   Vol. 78 No. 4 October 1998, pp. 1193-1231
Copyright ©1998 The American Physiological Society

Current Understanding of the Molecular Actions of Vitamin D

GLENVILLE JONES, STEPHEN A. STRUGNELL, AND HECTOR F. DeLUCA

Departments of Biochemistry and Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada; and Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin

Jones, Glenville, Stephen A. Strugnell, and Hector F. DeLuca. Current Understanding of the Molecular Actions of Vitamin D. Physiol. Rev. 78: 1193-1231, 1998. --- The important reactions that occur to the vitamin D molecule and the important reactions involved in the expression of the final active form of vitamin D are reviewed in a critical manner. After an overview of the metabolism of vitamin D to its active form and to its metabolic degradation products, the molecular understanding of the 1alpha -hydroxylation reaction and the 24-hydroxylation reaction of the vitamin D hormone is presented. Furthermore, the role of vitamin D in maintenance of serum calcium is reviewed at the physiological level and at the molecular level whenever possible. Of particular importance is the regulation of the parathyroid gland by the vitamin D hormone. A third section describes the known molecular events involved in the action of 1alpha ,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on its target cells. This includes reviewing what is now known concerning the overall mechanism of transcriptional regulation by vitamin D. It describes the vitamin D receptors that have been cloned and identified and describes the coactivators and retinoid X receptors required for the function of vitamin D in its genomic actions. The presence of receptor in previously uncharted target organs of vitamin D action has led to a study of the possible function of vitamin D in these organs. A good example of a new function described for 1alpha ,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is that found in the parathyroid gland. This is also true for the role of vitamin D hormone in skin, the immune system, a possible role in the pancreas, i.e., in the islet cells, and a possible role in female reproduction. This review also raises the intriguing question of whether vitamin D plays an important role in embryonic development, since vitamin D deficiency does not prohibit development, nor does vitamin D receptor knockout. The final section reviews some interesting analogs of the vitamin D hormone and their possible uses. The review ends with possible ideas with regard to future directions of vitamin D drug design.




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K. N. Evans, J. N. Bulmer, M. D. Kilby, and M. Hewison
Vitamin D and Placental-Decidual Function
Reproductive Sciences, July 1, 2004; 11(5): 263 - 271.
[Abstract] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
T. Yamasaki, S. Izumi, H. Ide, and Y. Ohyama
Identification of a Novel Rat Microsomal Vitamin D3 25-Hydroxylase
J. Biol. Chem., May 28, 2004; 279(22): 22848 - 22856.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
X. Qi, J. Tang, R. Pramanik, R. M. Schultz, S. Shirasawa, T. Sasazuki, J. Han, and G. Chen
p38 MAPK Activation Selectively Induces Cell Death in K-ras-mutated Human Colon Cancer Cells through Regulation of Vitamin D Receptor
J. Biol. Chem., May 21, 2004; 279(21): 22138 - 22144.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
J. B. Cheng, M. A. Levine, N. H. Bell, D. J. Mangelsdorf, and D. W. Russell
Genetic evidence that the human CYP2R1 enzyme is a key vitamin D 25-hydroxylase
PNAS, May 18, 2004; 101(20): 7711 - 7715.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
L. A. Plum, J. M. Prahl, X. Ma, R. R. Sicinski, S. Gowlugari, M. Clagett-Dame, and H. F. DeLuca
Biologically active noncalcemic analogs of 1{alpha},25-dihydroxyvitamin D with an abbreviated side chain containing no hydroxyl
PNAS, May 4, 2004; 101(18): 6900 - 6904.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
M. Kamao, S. Tatematsu, S. Hatakeyama, T. Sakaki, N. Sawada, K. Inouye, K. Ozono, N. Kubodera, G. S. Reddy, and T. Okano
C-3 Epimerization of Vitamin D3 Metabolites and Further Metabolism of C-3 Epimers: 25-HYDROXYVITAMIN D3 IS METABOLIZED TO 3-EPI-25-HYDROXYVITAMIN D3 AND SUBSEQUENTLY METABOLIZED THROUGH C-1{alpha} OR C-24 HYDROXYLATION
J. Biol. Chem., April 16, 2004; 279(16): 15897 - 15907.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
D. K. Panda, D. Miao, I. Bolivar, J. Li, R. Huo, G. N. Hendy, and D. Goltzman
Inactivation of the 25-Hydroxyvitamin D 1{alpha}-Hydroxylase and Vitamin D Receptor Demonstrates Independent and Interdependent Effects of Calcium and Vitamin D on Skeletal and Mineral Homeostasis
J. Biol. Chem., April 16, 2004; 279(16): 16754 - 16766.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Exp. Biol. Med.Home page
L. V. Stewart and N. L. Weigel
Vitamin D and Prostate Cancer
Experimental Biology and Medicine, April 1, 2004; 229(4): 277 - 284.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
F. Barletta, P. Dhawan, and S. Christakos
Integration of hormone signaling in the regulation of human 25(OH)D3 24-hydroxylase transcription
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, April 1, 2004; 286(4): E598 - E608.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
G. Thomas, P. Moffatt, P. Salois, M.-H. Gaumond, R. Gingras, E. Godin, D. Miao, D. Goltzman, and C. Lanctot
Osteocrin, a Novel Bone-specific Secreted Protein That Modulates the Osteoblast Phenotype
J. Biol. Chem., December 12, 2003; 278(50): 50563 - 50571.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
O. Guryev, R. A. Carvalho, S. Usanov, A. Gilep, and R. W. Estabrook
A pathway for the metabolism of vitamin D3: Unique hydroxylated metabolites formed during catalysis with cytochrome P450scc (CYP11A1)
PNAS, December 9, 2003; 100(25): 14754 - 14759.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
X. Dong, T. Craig, N. Xing, L. A. Bachman, C. V. Paya, F. Weih, D. J. McKean, R. Kumar, and M. D. Griffin
Direct Transcriptional Regulation of RelB by 1{alpha},25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and Its Analogs: PHYSIOLOGIC AND THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS FOR DENDRITIC CELL FUNCTION
J. Biol. Chem., December 5, 2003; 278(49): 49378 - 49385.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
K. Yokomura, T. Suda, S. Sasaki, N. Inui, K. Chida, and H. Nakamura
Increased Expression of the 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3-1{alpha}-Hydroxylase Gene in Alveolar Macrophages of Patients with Lung Cancer
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 5704 - 5709.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
H. Tsujikawa, Y. Kurotaki, T. Fujimori, K. Fukuda, and Y.-I. Nabeshima
Klotho, a Gene Related to a Syndrome Resembling Human Premature Aging, Functions in a Negative Regulatory Circuit of Vitamin D Endocrine System
Mol. Endocrinol., December 1, 2003; 17(12): 2393 - 2403.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol.Home page
D. W. Good, T. George, and B. A. Watts III
Aldosterone potentiates 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 action in renal thick ascending limb via a nongenomic, ERK-dependent pathway
Am J Physiol Cell Physiol, November 1, 2003; 285(5): C1122 - C1130.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J.-C. Hsieh, J. M. Sisk, P. W. Jurutka, C. A. Haussler, S. A. Slater, M. R. Haussler, and C. C. Thompson
Physical and Functional Interaction between the Vitamin D Receptor and Hairless Corepressor, Two Proteins Required for Hair Cycling
J. Biol. Chem., October 3, 2003; 278(40): 38665 - 38674.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
J. B. Cheng, D. L. Motola, D. J. Mangelsdorf, and D. W. Russell
De-orphanization of Cytochrome P450 2R1: A MICROSOMAL VITAMIN D 25-HYDROXYLASE
J. Biol. Chem., September 26, 2003; 278(39): 38084 - 38093.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
H. Yamamoto, N. K. Shevde, A. Warrier, L. A. Plum, H. F. DeLuca, and J. W. Pike
2-Methylene-19-nor-(20S)-1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 Potently Stimulates Gene-specific DNA Binding of the Vitamin D Receptor in Osteoblasts
J. Biol. Chem., August 22, 2003; 278(34): 31756 - 31765.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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JNCI J Natl Cancer InstHome page
T. Kumagai, J. O'Kelly, J. W. Said, and H. P. Koeffler
Vitamin D2 Analog 19-nor-1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D2: Antitumor Activity Against Leukemia, Myeloma, and Colon Cancer Cells
J Natl Cancer Inst, June 18, 2003; 95(12): 896 - 905.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Immunol.Home page
M. Hewison, L. Freeman, S. V. Hughes, K. N. Evans, R. Bland, A. G. Eliopoulos, M. D. Kilby, P. A. H. Moss, and R. Chakraverty
Differential Regulation of Vitamin D Receptor and Its Ligand in Human Monocyte-Derived Dendritic Cells
J. Immunol., June 1, 2003; 170(11): 5382 - 5390.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
A. L. M. Sutton and P. N. MacDonald
Vitamin D: More Than a "Bone-a-Fide" Hormone
Mol. Endocrinol., May 1, 2003; 17(5): 777 - 791.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol.Home page
H. J. Armbrecht, M. A. Boltz, and T. L. Hodam
PTH increases renal 25(OH)D3-1alpha -hydroxylase (CYP1alpha ) mRNA but not renal 1,25(OH)2D3 production in adult rats
Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, May 1, 2003; 284(5): F1032 - F1036.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Nephrol Dial TransplantHome page
R. A. Upton, J. C. Knutson, C. W. Bishop, and L. W. LeVan
Pharmacokinetics of doxercalciferol, a new vitamin D analogue that lowers parathyroid hormone
Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., April 1, 2003; 18(4): 750 - 758.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
X.-Y. Bai, D. Miao, D. Goltzman, and A. C. Karaplis
The Autosomal Dominant Hypophosphatemic Rickets R176Q Mutation in Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 Resists Proteolytic Cleavage and Enhances in Vivo Biological Potency
J. Biol. Chem., March 7, 2003; 278(11): 9843 - 9849.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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EndocrinologyHome page
R. Lin, T. T. Wang, W. H. Miller Jr., and J. H. White
Inhibition of F-Box Protein p45SKP2 Expression and Stabilization of Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p27KIP1 in Vitamin D Analog-Treated Cancer Cells
Endocrinology, March 1, 2003; 144(3): 749 - 753.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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EndocrinologyHome page
D. Larsson, I. Nemere, L. Aksnes, and K. Sundell
Environmental Salinity Regulates Receptor Expression, Cellular Effects, and Circulating Levels of Two Antagonizing Hormones, 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and 24,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3, in Rainbow Trout
Endocrinology, February 1, 2003; 144(2): 559 - 566.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Nephrol Dial TransplantHome page
M. Hirata, K. Makibayashi, K. Katsumata, K. Kusano, T. Watanabe, N. Fukushima, and T. Doi
22-Oxacalcitriol prevents progressive glomerulosclerosis without adversely affecting calcium and phosphorus metabolism in subtotally nephrectomized rats
Nephrol. Dial. Transplant., December 1, 2002; 17(12): 2132 - 2137.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
R. Brigelius-Flohe, F. J Kelly, J. T Salonen, J. Neuzil, J.-M. Zingg, and A. Azzi
The European perspective on vitamin E: current knowledge and future research
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2002; 76(4): 703 - 716.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
J. F. Raposo, L. G. Sobrinho, and H. G. Ferreira
A Minimal Mathematical Model of Calcium Homeostasis
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2002; 87(9): 4330 - 4340.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
P. P. Dwivedi, C. S. T. Hii, A. Ferrante, J. Tan, C. J. Der, J. L. Omdahl, H. A. Morris, and B. K. May
Role of MAP Kinases in the 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3-induced Transactivation of the Rat Cytochrome P450C24 (CYP24) Promoter. SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS FOR ERK1/ERK2 AND ERK5
J. Biol. Chem., August 9, 2002; 277(33): 29643 - 29653.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J ANIM SCIHome page
B. R. Wiegand, J. C. Sparks, D. C. Beitz, F. C. Parrish Jr., R. L. Horst, A. H. Trenkle, and R. C. Ewan
Short-term feeding of vitamin D3 improves color but does not change tenderness of pork-loin chops
J Anim Sci, August 1, 2002; 80(8): 2116 - 2121.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Nutr.Home page
L. E. Johnson and H. F. DeLuca
Reproductive Defects Are Corrected in Vitamin D-Deficient Female Rats Fed a High Calcium, Phosphorus and Lactose Diet
J. Nutr., August 1, 2002; 132(8): 2270 - 2273.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Biol. Chem.Home page
X. Qi, R. Pramanik, J. Wang, R. M. Schultz, R. K. Maitra, J. Han, H. F. DeLuca, and G. Chen
The p38 and JNK Pathways Cooperate to trans-Activate Vitamin D Receptor via c-Jun/AP-1 and Sensitize Human Breast Cancer Cells to Vitamin D3-induced Growth Inhibition
J. Biol. Chem., July 12, 2002; 277(29): 25884 - 25892.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Circ. Res.Home page
M. C. Rebsamen, J. Sun, A. W. Norman, and J. K. Liao
1{alpha},25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Induces Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Migration via Activation of Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase
Circ. Res., July 12, 2002; 91(1): 17 - 24.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Lipid Res.Home page
J. V. Chithalen, L. Luu, M. Petkovich, and G. Jones
HPLC-MS/MS analysis of the products generated from all-trans-retinoic acid using recombinant human CYP26A
J. Lipid Res., July 1, 2002; 43(7): 1133 - 1142.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
R. G. Erben, D. W. Soegiarto, K. Weber, U. Zeitz, M. Lieberherr, R. Gniadecki, G. Moller, J. Adamski, and R. Balling
Deletion of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Binding Domain of the Vitamin D Receptor Abrogates Genomic and Nongenomic Functions of Vitamin D
Mol. Endocrinol., July 1, 2002; 16(7): 1524 - 1537.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Am. J. Pathol.Home page
D. Zehnder, K. N. Evans, M. D. Kilby, J. N. Bulmer, B. A. Innes, P. M. Stewart, and M. Hewison
The Ontogeny of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 1{alpha}-Hydroxylase Expression in Human Placenta and Decidua
Am. J. Pathol., July 1, 2002; 161(1): 105 - 114.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.Home page
U. Segersten, P. Correa, M. Hewison, P. Hellman, H. Dralle, T. Carling, G. Akerstrom, and G. Westin
25-Hydroxyvitamin D3-1{alpha}-Hydroxylase Expression in Normal and Pathological Parathyroid Glands
J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2002; 87(6): 2967 - 2972.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]


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Mol. Endocrinol.Home page
R. Lin, Y. Nagai, R. Sladek, Y. Bastien, J. Ho, K. Petrecca, G. Sotiropoulou, E. P. Diamandis, T. J. Hudson, and J. H. White
Expression Profiling in Squamous Carcinoma Cells Reveals Pleiotropic Effects of Vitamin D3 Analog EB1089 Signaling on Cell Proliferation, Differentiation, and Immune System Regulation
Mol. Endocrinol., June 1, 2002; 16(6): 1243 - 1256.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]




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