| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
Physiological Reviews, Vol 77, 837-899, Copyright © 1997 by American Physiological Society
JOURNAL ARTICLE |
P. J. Butler and D. R. Jones
School of Biological Sciences, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, United Kingdom.
This review concentrates on the physiological responses, and their control, in freely diving birds and mammals that enable them to remain submerged and sometimes quite active for extended periods of time. Recent developments in technology have provided much detailed information on the behavior of these fascinating animals. Unfortunately, the advances in technology have been insufficient to enable physiologists to obtain anything like the same level of detail on the metabolic rate and physiological adjustments that occur during natural diving. This has led to much speculation and calculations based on many assumptions concerning usable oxygen stores and metabolic rate during diving, in an attempt to explain the observed behavior. Despite their shortcomings, these calculations have provided useful insights into the degree of adaptations of various species of aquatic birds and mammals. Many of them, e.g., ducks, smaller penguins, fur seals, and Weddell seals, seem able to metabolize aerobically, when diving, at approximately the same (if not greater) rate as they do at the surface. Their enhanced oxygen stores are able to support aerobic metabolism, at what would not be considered unusually low levels, for the duration of the dives, although there are probably circulatory readjustments to ensure that the oxygen stores are managed judiciously. For other species, such as the larger penguins, South Georgian shag, and female elephant seals, there is a general consensus that they must either be reducing their aerobic metabolic rate when diving, possibly by way of regional hypothermia, and/or producing ATP, at least partly, by anaerobiosis and metabolizing the lactic acid when at the surface (although this is hardly likely in the case of the female elephant seals). Circulation is the proximate regulator of metabolism during aerobic diving, and heart rate is the best single indicator of circulatory adjustment. During voluntary dives, heart rates range from extreme bradycardia to well above resting, reflecting metabolic performance. Efferent cardiac control is largely parasympathetic. Reflex cardiorespiratory responses are modulated by conditioning and habituation, but reflexes predominate during extended dives and during recovery, when gas exchange is maximized.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  J. U. Meir, T. K. Stockard, C. L. Williams, K. V. Ponganis, and P. J. Ponganis Heart rate regulation and extreme bradycardia in diving emperor penguins J. Exp. Biol., April 15, 2008; 211(8): 1169 - 1179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. R. Enstipp, D. Gremillet, and D. R. Jones Heat increment of feeding in double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) and its potential for thermal substitution J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2008; 211(1): 49 - 57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. A. Green, L. G Halsey, P. J. Butler, and R. L. Holder Estimating the rate of oxygen consumption during submersion from the heart rate of diving animals Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, May 1, 2007; 292(5): R2028 - R2038. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. L. Tyack, M. Johnson, N. A. Soto, A. Sturlese, and P. T. Madsen Extreme diving of beaked whales J. Exp. Biol., November 1, 2006; 209(21): 4238 - 4253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Schmidt, F. Alard, and Y. Handrich Changes in body temperatures in king penguins at sea: the result of fine adjustments in peripheral heat loss? Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, September 1, 2006; 291(3): R608 - R618. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. J. Wright and R. W. Davis The effect of myoglobin concentration on aerobic dive limit in a Weddell seal J. Exp. Biol., July 1, 2006; 209(13): 2576 - 2585. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. K. Polasek, K. A. Dickson, and R. W. Davis Metabolic indicators in the skeletal muscles of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, June 1, 2006; 290(6): R1720 - R1727. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. A. Goldbogen, J. Calambokidis, R. E. Shadwick, E. M. Oleson, M. A. McDonald, and J. A. Hildebrand Kinematics of foraging dives and lunge-feeding in fin whales J. Exp. Biol., April 1, 2006; 209(7): 1231 - 1244. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. R. Enstipp, D. Gremillet, and D. R. Jones The effects of depth, temperature and food ingestion on the foraging energetics of a diving endotherm, the double-crested cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus) J. Exp. Biol., March 1, 2006; 209(5): 845 - 859. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
W. W. Burggren and M. G. Monticino Assessing physiological complexity J. Exp. Biol., September 1, 2005; 208(17): 3221 - 3232. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Fahlman, A. Schmidt, Y. Handrich, A. J. Woakes, and P. J. Butler Metabolism and thermoregulation during fasting in king penguins, Aptenodytes patagonicus, in air and water Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, September 1, 2005; 289(3): R670 - R679. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Knower Stockard, J. Heil, J. U. Meir, K. Sato, K. V. Ponganis, and P. J. Ponganis Air sac PO2 and oxygen depletion during dives of emperor penguins J. Exp. Biol., August 1, 2005; 208(15): 2973 - 2980. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. A. Green, I. L. Boyd, A. J. Woakes, C. J. Green, and P. J. Butler Do seasonal changes in metabolic rate facilitate changes in diving behaviour? J. Exp. Biol., July 1, 2005; 208(13): 2581 - 2593. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Watanuki, A. Takahashi, F. Daunt, S. Wanless, M. Harris, K. Sato, and Y. Naito Regulation of stroke and glide in a foot-propelled avian diver J. Exp. Biol., June 15, 2005; 208(12): 2207 - 2216. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Stephenson Physiological control of diving behaviour in the Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddelli: a model based on cardiorespiratory control theory J. Exp. Biol., May 15, 2005; 208(10): 1971 - 1991. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. A. Block Physiological Ecology in the 21st Century: Advancements in Biologging Science Integr. Comp. Biol., April 1, 2005; 45(2): 305 - 320. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. L. Lapierre, J. F. Schreer, J. M. Burns, and M. O. Hammill Developmental changes in cardiorespiratory patterns associated with terrestrial apnoeas in harbour seal pups J. Exp. Biol., October 15, 2004; 207(22): 3891 - 3898. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Froget, P. J. Butler, A. J. Woakes, A. Fahlman, G. Kuntz, Y. Le Maho, and Y. Handrich Heart rate and energetics of free-ranging king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) J. Exp. Biol., October 15, 2004; 207(22): 3917 - 3926. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. P. Wilson and F. Quintana Surface pauses in relation to dive duration in imperial cormorants; how much time for a breather? J. Exp. Biol., May 1, 2004; 207(11): 1789 - 1796. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. E. Sparling and M. A. Fedak Metabolic rates of captive grey seals during voluntary diving J. Exp. Biol., April 15, 2004; 207(10): 1615 - 1624. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. P. A. Andersson, M. H. Liner, A. Fredsted, and E. K. A. Schagatay Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to apneas with and without face immersion in exercising humans J Appl Physiol, March 1, 2004; 96(3): 1005 - 1010. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. M. Williams, L. A. Fuiman, M. Horning, and R. W. Davis The cost of foraging by a marine predator, the Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellii: pricing by the stroke J. Exp. Biol., February 22, 2004; 207(6): 973 - 982. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. R. Watson, T. A. Miller, and R. W. Davis Immunohistochemical fiber typing of harbor seal skeletal muscle J. Exp. Biol., November 15, 2003; 206(22): 4105 - 4111. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. L. Fuson, D. F. Cowan, S. B. Kanatous, L. K. Polasek, and R. W. Davis Adaptations to diving hypoxia in the heart, kidneys and splanchnic organs of harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) J. Exp. Biol., November 15, 2003; 206(22): 4139 - 4154. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. M. Hiebert and E. Burch SIMULATED HUMAN DIVING AND HEART RATE: MAKING THE MOST OF THE DIVING RESPONSE AS A LABORATORY EXERCISE Advan Physiol Educ, September 1, 2003; 27(3): 130 - 145. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. P. Wilson, A. Simeone, G. Luna-Jorquera, A. Steinfurth, S. Jackson, and A. Fahlman Patterns of respiration in diving penguins: is the last gasp an inspired tactic? J. Exp. Biol., May 15, 2003; 206(10): 1751 - 1763. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. A. Green, P. J. Butler, A. J. Woakes, and I. L. Boyd Energetics of diving in macaroni penguins J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2003; 206(1): 43 - 57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. P. van Dam, P. J. Ponganis, K. V. Ponganis, D. H. Levenson, and G. Marshall Stroke frequencies of emperor penguins diving under sea ice J. Exp. Biol., December 15, 2002; 205(24): 3769 - 3774. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Parkes, L. G. Halsey, A. J. Woakes, R. L. Holder, and P. J. Butler Oxygen uptake during post dive recovery in a diving bird Aythya fuligula: implications for optimal foraging models J. Exp. Biol., December 15, 2002; 205(24): 3945 - 3954. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. M. Elliott, R. D. Andrews, and D. R. Jones Pharmacological blockade of the dive response: effects on heart rate and diving behaviour in the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) J. Exp. Biol., December 1, 2002; 205(23): 3757 - 3765. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Lindholm, J. Nordh, and D. Linnarsson Role of hypoxemia for the cardiovascular responses to apnea during exercise Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2002; 283(5): R1227 - R1235. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. P. A. Andersson, M. H. Liner, E. Runow, and E. K. A. Schagatay Diving response and arterial oxygen saturation during apnea and exercise in breath-hold divers J Appl Physiol, September 1, 2002; 93(3): 882 - 886. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. Cogliati, D. J. Good, M. Haigney, P. Delgado-Romero, M. A. Eckhaus, W. J. Koch, and I. R. Kirsch Predisposition to Arrhythmia and Autonomic Dysfunction in Nhlh1-Deficient Mice Mol. Cell. Biol., July 15, 2002; 22(14): 4977 - 4983. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Jorgensen, C. Lydersen, O. Brix, and K. M. Kovacs Diving development in nursing harbour seal pups J. Exp. Biol., March 13, 2002; 204(22): 3993 - 4004. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. F. Boggs, R. V. Baudinette, P. B. Frappell, and P. J. Butler The influence of locomotion on air-sac pressures in little penguins J. Exp. Biol., March 12, 2002; 204(20): 3581 - 3586. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. W. McIntyre, K. L. Campbell, and R. A. MacArthur Body oxygen stores, aerobic dive limits and diving behaviour of the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) and comparisons with non-aquatic talpids J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2002; 205(1): 45 - 54. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. J. Ponganis, U. Kreutzer, N. Sailasuta, T. Knower, R. Hurd, and T. Jue Detection of myoglobin desaturation in Mirounga angustirostris during apnea Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, January 1, 2002; 282(1): R267 - R272. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. J. Butler Diving Beyond the Limits Physiology, October 1, 2001; 16(5): 222 - 227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. B. Kanatous, R. Elsner, and O. Mathieu-Costello Muscle capillary supply in harbor seals J Appl Physiol, May 1, 2001; 90(5): 1919 - 1926. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Schagatay, J. P. A. Andersson, M. Hallen, and B. Palsson Physiological and Genomic Consequences of Intermittent Hypoxia: Selected Contribution: Role of spleen emptying in prolonging apneas in humans J Appl Physiol, April 1, 2001; 90(4): 1623 - 1629. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. M. Williams Intermittent Swimming by Mammals: A Strategy for Increasing Energetic Efficiency During Diving Integr. Comp. Biol., April 1, 2001; 41(2): 166 - 176. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Burns and G. L. Kooyman Habitat Use by Weddell Seals and Emperor Penguins Foraging in the Ross Sea, Antarctica Integr. Comp. Biol., February 1, 2001; 41(1): 90 - 98. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. R. Enstipp, R. D. Andrews, and D. R. Jones The effects of depth on the cardiac and behavioural responses of double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus) during voluntary diving J. Exp. Biol., January 12, 2001; 204(23): 4081 - 4092. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Ward, U. Moller, J. M. V. Rayner, D. M. Jackson, D. Bilo, W. Nachtigall, and J. R. Speakman Metabolic power, mechanical power and efficiency during wind tunnel flight by the European starling Sturnus vulgaris J. Exp. Biol., January 10, 2001; 204(19): 3311 - 3322. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Bennett, B. McConnell, and M. Fedak Diurnal and seasonal variations in the duration and depth of the longest dives in southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina): possible physiological and behavioural constraints J. Exp. Biol., January 2, 2001; 204(4): 649 - 662. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Polasek and R. Davis Heterogeneity of myoglobin distribution in the locomotory muscles of five cetacean species J. Exp. Biol., January 1, 2001; 204(2): 209 - 215. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. M. Williams, R. W. Davis, L. A. Fuiman, J. Francis, B. J. Le Boeuf, M. Horning, J. Calambokidis, and D. A. Croll Sink or Swim: Strategies for Cost-Efficient Diving by Marine Mammals Science, April 7, 2000; 288(5463): 133 - 136. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. Boyd Skin temperatures during free-ranging swimming and diving in antarctic fur seals J. Exp. Biol., January 6, 2000; 203(12): 1907 - 1914. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Lindholm, P. Sundblad, and D. Linnarsson Oxygen-conserving effects of apnea in exercising men J Appl Physiol, December 1, 1999; 87(6): 2122 - 2127. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. Gremillet and R. P. Wilson A life in the fast lane: energetics and foraging strategies of the great cormorant Behav. Ecol., September 1, 1999; 10(5): 516 - 524. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. W. Taylor, D. Jordan, and J. H. Coote Central Control of the Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems and Their Interactions in Vertebrates Physiol Rev, July 1, 1999; 79(3): 855 - 916. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 I. L. Boyd, R. M. Bevan, A. J. Woakes, and P. J. Butler Heart rate and behavior of fur seals: implications for measurement of field energetics Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, March 1, 1999; 276(3): H844 - H857. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Williams, J. Haun, and W. Friedl The diving physiology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). I. Balancing the demands of exercise for energy conservation at depth J. Exp. Biol., January 10, 1999; 202(20): 2739 - 2748. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A Ishimatsu, N. Aguilar, K Ogawa, Y Hishida, T Takeda, S Oikawa, T Kanda, and K. Huat Arterial blood gas levels and cardiovascular function during varying environmental conditions in a mudskipper, periophthalmodon schlosseri J. Exp. Biol., January 7, 1999; 202(13): 1753 - 1762. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Davis and S. Kanatous Convective oxygen transport and tissue oxygen consumption in Weddell seals during aerobic dives J. Exp. Biol., January 5, 1999; 202(9): 1091 - 1113. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Southwood, R. Andrews, M. Lutcavage, F. Paladino, N. West, R. George, and D. Jones Heart rates and diving behavior of leatherback sea turtles in the eastern pacific ocean J. Exp. Biol., January 5, 1999; 202(9): 1115 - 1125. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| Visit Other APS Journals Online |
